Myths in Motivating Adult Students |
K. Kurt Eschenmann |
Abstract For the past 20 years, notable increases in adult enrollment in post secondary and collegiate vocational and technical education have been noted. Although the trend is projected to continue into the next century, the much needed supporting research—describing how motivation strategies can best be crafted to optimize the value of adult learning pursuits—has been scant and almost non-existent. Such a research void may be in part the result of two interrelated factors. First, none of the early motivation theories focused exclusively on the adult learner (Madsen, 1974; Wlodkowski, 1986a). Second, because of the void in adult-focused theory, vocational educators often adopted previously developed youth-focused strategies which they modified for the adult learners. Problems associated with this approach flow from the motivation theories goal of meeting the learners’ respective individual needs. Because adult needs are often different from youth needs, strategies designed for the latter may not be adequate for the former. Although adult-learner motivational theory may not be specifically addressed in the literature, all motivation principles are grounded in existing psychological theories. Moreover, when properly interpreted by classroom teachers, these existing theories can be used as a foundation for developing motivation strategies targeted exclusively to adult students. Nevertheless, a potential barrier to such strategy-development does exist—namely, because many vocational and technical teachers are limited in experience or informal adult education training, they may be using motivation strategies based on myths about the adult student population. Such myths can create additional barriers that the adult learners must then overcome before succeeding in the classroom and in the laboratory. The author presents a two-faceted discussion of the adult learner trend and its implications for post secondary education. First, five prevalent myths about adult students are carefully delineated and explained, along with the context in which the myths may adversely impact adult learning outcomes. Second, prescriptive strategies are formulated that can be used to negate the potential harm that these myth-based barriers can pose to the adult learners’ school based achievement. |
Myths in Motivating Adult Students Myths and Adult Enrollment Growth - Two Interrelated Phenomena In recent decades adult enrollments in post secondary schools have soared, reaching 40 million during the 1980’s (Wlodkowski, 1986) and comprising one-third of all undergraduate students in the United States by 1991 (Ellen-Post, 1991). Moreover, according to many projections, such expansive enrollments of the over-25 age group in post secondary institutions will continue into the 21st century (Eschenmann & Olinger, 1988: 1991). Three reasons for the past increase and the projected continued expansion of adult enrollments have emerged from the accumulated educational research and from related statistics in other areas. First, more post secondary institutions continue to update and expand their course offerings, thus creating more opportunity for adults to take advantage of these offerings. Second, numerous adults are pursuing multiple areas of interest, precipitated by the need for additional skills in order to seek advancement—in earnings, in promotion, or in personal growth and enrichment. Finally, large numbers of older adults have increasingly found themselves pursuing a second career after voluntary or involuntary retirement. Such trends have given birth to innovative educational initiatives such as (a) offering courses/degrees in non-traditional settings (Barnett, 1997), and (b) using electronic technology (Parlsot, 1994)— both designed to accommodate the rising demands of working and non-working adult students. Considering the changing nature of programs for adult students and the resulting need to align such changes with appropriate motivation strategies, classroom teachers—the groups most accountable for effecting the alignment—are compelled to revisit their beliefs about motivation strategies and evaluate the value and application of those strategies to the contemporary classroom and the adult learner. Without this effort teachers risk continuing to use obsolete strategies that are not compatible with the needs of adult students in contemporary classrooms. |
Motivation Theory and Related Myths In 1974, Madsen observed that a motivation theory designed specifically for the adult learner was lacking. Over the next 25 years, his observation was continually affirmed by other professional educators (Wlodkowski, 1986a). Even today, as reflected in contemporary literature, research focusing on a motivation theory specifically for the adult student remains sparse. Why? Possibly the answer lies in a ongoing debate around a single question—namely, should youth and adult learners be considered as different groups in the classroom-based motivation research (Imel, 1997). Whatever the reason, the fact remains that without a solid research base to serve as a foundation, adult educators will likely continue to modify motivation strategies originally intended for youth. Moreover, and potentially more damaging, such strategies are often based on preconceived myths frequently accepted as factual assumptions. Meanwhile, because adult enrollments continue to increase rapidly, educators can ill afford to prolong the debate; nor can they continue to wait for a specific adult focused motivation theory to emerge before they act. What action can or should they take? The author proposes a viable solution—one that ignores the wait-game by encouraging teachers to become the proactive leaders in the student motivation process (Eschenmann, 1992). By using basic psychological theory to design classroom activities, teachers have the ability to negate or at least minimize the impact existing myths about adult student learning, educational achievement, and ultimate career plans have on the motivation of this student group. |
Identifying and Dispelling the Myths Myth # 1: Adults Require Less of the Instructor’s Time. As instructors eagerly anticipate teaching adults for the first time, they often demonstrate enthusiasm based on the belief that adult learners will require less instructor time than youthful learners. When compared to their younger counterparts, adults, the instructors reason, are easier to teach because (a) they have higher levels of confidence which (b) trans-lates into higher ability levels, including the ability to work independently with a minimum amount of direction and supervision. Research, though, suggests that such beliefs may be the exception rather than the rule. To understand why, one needs to consider the implications of some important research findings. First, adult students with histories of poor school-based performance tend to lack the self confidence which, if the myths were true, would be thoroughly ingrained in adults. This lack of self confidence surfaces among students as uncertainty in their abilities to succeed. More importantly for the teacher, as adult students bring this uncertainty into the classroom and laboratory, it negatively influences the students’ study habits, thereby causing feelings of inadequacy. To overcome such feelings of inadequacy, the students often expect their teacher to provide them with very detailed and specific information about in-class and out-of-class assignments. When teachers provide such information, they soondiscover that they are spending more—not less—time with their students than initially planned. Although the disappointment of reality replaces the preconceived myth, this situation need not be indefinite or irrevocable. Consider this—student successes in the classroom build corollary increases in self-confidence which in turn lead to decreased demands for instructor time. How then can teachers foster such student successes and wean the instructor-dependent mindset? Two steps are critical in accomplishing this goal. First, a teacher must structure an initial classroom experience in which all students can succeed. The initial success builds confidence which then stimulates motivation and leads to additional future success. As the pattern of success continues, student reliance on the instructor will gradually diminish. Second, designing learner activities with structured but flexible parameters, increases the probability of student success. The structure of the activity gives adults the parameters necessary for them to make important decisions. If the parameters are also flexible, they afford adults the additional benefit of being able to capitalize on their strongest learning style or preference. As a final note of caution, however, teachers need to remember this: The more difficult the task, the more direction the teachers must provide learners attempting to master the task (Wlodkowski, 1986b). According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, the motivation levels required to spur student interest in performing tasks of varying levels of difficulty increases as the complexity of the task to be performed increases. Hence, overly complex tasks, when attempted too soon—by students without a large reserve of self-confidence built upon simple tasks—may diminish student motivation and lead to decreased learning (Cross, 1989). It follows, therefore, that assigning overly difficult tasks to students—even those with structure and flexibility—must be avoided if the student’s potential to succeed is not hindered. Simple tasks with realistic success expectations usually result in high levels of learner motivation. |
Myth # 2: Adults Have the Desire to Return to School. The growth of the adult student population has instilled the belief among many teachers that adults, usually desiring personal improvement, are also motivated to acquire additional education. The belief mistakenly associates the desire for improvement with the desire for additional education. While many adult learners do have a strong desire to learn, it is not necessarily synonymous with—nor does it necessarily result in—a desire for more education. Because learning does not always mean education, disagreement between a learner’s desire for excellence and the teacher’s expectations may surface. Teachers must be aware that while many adults return to school to accomplish personal goals, others do so for career-related reasons—such as (a) enhancing their promotability, (b) gaining skills for other jobs to replace ones lost through corporate downsizing and reductions in force, or (c) changing careers. Whatever the reason, these adults are usually compelled by necessity—not choice —to return to school and take classes. Under such circumstances, the pressures adults feel as they become students may place them at risk for potential failure. Hence teachers are obligated inasmuch as possible to create a classroom environment conducive to positive academic outcomes (Wexler, 1997). The fact that classroom performance is, in part, a function of student comfort levels is well documented. Moreover additional research suggests that students who feel uncomfortable with their leaning environment drop out of school at higher rates. Related studies report that the drop-out rate among adult learners also increases as they begin to experience uneasiness with their teachers and the competitive challenges from the younger students in their classes (Bossier, 1973). Considering these findings, one cannot dispute the impact of a positive learning environment on student performance. How can instructors create a positive learning environment? One way is to structure courses so that the learner can apply tomorrow what they learn in the classroom today (Knowles, 1978). The ability to immediately apply new skills and knowledge sends a signal to the student that learning is fun and practical but also can occur in a non-threatening environment. A second approach that instructors can take is rooted in the knowledge that adults want to learn for the purpose of problem solving and not necessarily for the love of the subject. Because of this desire, the use of projects becomes a valuable technique (Tough, 1971; 1979) to motivate students via in-class as well as out-of-class activities. |
Myth # 3: Adults Are Capable Decision Makers Adults usually make hundreds of decisions daily, with varying degrees and kinds of impact resulting from those decisions. Having noted this action, observers have often reasoned that adults must have honed their decision-making abilities accordingly to high levels of effectiveness. As documented by contemporary literature, decision making is an important and necessary element for enhancing positive self-esteem. Furthermore, the ability to make good decisions contributes to a heightened level of personal motivation and helps promote a positive, self-confident attitude. In spite of these findings, one inherent myth about the value of the decision making process continues to persist—the myth that decision making is a natural process in which good decision-making skills will accrue and become strengthened through everyday use. To the contrary, good decision making is a learned—not a natural or instinctive—process, as evidenced by the numerous firms who spend millions of dollars each year on seminars and workshops designed to instill effective decision-making skills in managers and executives. The rapid expansion of such activities and the increased numbers of companies utilizing them attest to the fact that effective decision-making skills must be mastered before they can be used for optimum benefit. Individuals who do not master these skills are in reality selecting from a menu of choices and not making decisions. The difference between decisions and choices is more than semantics. Decisions can be made only after various options to a specific problem have been analyzed. Choices, on the other hand, are selected based on individual preference. Without careful analysis, poor choices usually result in negative consequences that can lead to reduced motivation. Well-reasoned and thoughtfully crafted decisions, on the other hand, typically instill confidence and enhance motivation—the two critical components for continued future success. |
Myth # 4: All Adults Bring Valuable Experience to the Classroom. Most teachers acknowledge their belief that adults’ accumulated lifelong array of experiences provide a rich resource from which educators can often extract valuable information. Contemporary literature refers to this process as relevance. Nevertheless, when teachers consider the students’ experiences, they must also consider the wide range of ages represented by students. While some adult learners may have just turned 25, others may be approaching 60 or 70. Clearly, the amount of experience gathered by the 25-year-old adult is not nearly as extensive as that of a 60-year-old adult. Hence, one cannot assume that all or even most adults bring to the classroom equivalent amounts or kinds of experience (Adult Task Force, 1991). Not only do adults differ widely in age, but they also differ widely in educational attainment. Some may not have completed high school while others may have a college degree. To some extent the wide range of experience that encompasses the adult student population is a function of both varying age levels and varying educational attainment levels. In reality, the depth of a learner’s experience is often a double-edged sword. Just for a moment, consider experience as a tool the learner can use to accomplish a specific task and compare it to the use of a hand tool. Screwdrivers are an excellent choice to install and remove screws. They are not very practical, however, to drive a nail into a piece of wood. Similarly, learning resources are most helpful when they are used in the environment and context for which they were designed. Most experiences which adult learners bring to the classroom have accrued primarily in, and been shaped by, their personal or occupational environments, thereby posing the risk of limiting achievement in the classroom. Consequently, the teachers are compelled to craft learning activities that appropriately allow the students to apply such experiences to new but relevant learning situations. Without this application component, adult learners have no basis upon which to connect what they have learned in life and on-the-job with what they are learning in the classroom (Tough, 1968). Teachers must therefore illustrate—by using abundant real-life examples and applications—numerous complex ideas and theories which they simplify and use in class presentations. Designing classroom activities that are relevant to the students’ experiential frames of reference will help insure that their life experiences will be used in such a way as to enhance the value and understanding of the information being learned and the ideas being explained. One reason the design of such classroom activities is so important is that current curriculum materials connecting workplace activities with classroom activities are difficult to locate (Perlin, 1995). Teachers facing the dilemma of scant curriculum materials to use as resources in designing their classroom strategies have been compelled to create new activities individualized according to student background and needs. In doing so, such teachers have reported successful outcomes among students who, when permitted to use their own areas of interest as a base, achieve higher levels of success and display increased levels of motivation. |
Myth # 5: Adults Know What They Want. Although adult learners often have realistic expectations of what they want to achieve—especially if their goal is career advancement or mobility—a myth has grown up around this fact, thereby eroding its clarity and diminishing its validity to the detriment of education. This myth is—that most adult learners have a clear objective in mind when they enroll in a course. Although adults with realistic expectations typically do not enroll in frivolous courses unless the courses can somehow advance the students toward their specific objectives, many adults are, nevertheless, unsure what to expect from the courses in which they enroll. Such uncertainty often remains unnoticed and can result in debilitating levels of student anxiety which ultimately impedes the overall learning process (Cranton, 1989). Learners who are high-need achievers are typically more internally oriented; while many low-need achievers are more externally oriented (Green, 1985; Wittrock, 1986). In some instances, anxiety among adult learners can surface in the form of resisting learning that occurs in the classroom. Ironically, learner resistance that is often observed by the teacher can just as likely be the result of pressures that occur outside the classroom—at home or at work for example (Maurer, 1996). Not all anxiety, however, has a negative impact on student performance. Often a high level of anxiety among adult learners may function as a positive motivating factor. This is especially true if the excess anxiety is focused on the facilitation process, in which case it can actually improve performance (Cranton, 1989). How then can teachers use these findings to benefit groups of highly anxious learners? According to Wlodkowski (1986b), teachers can minimize the negative impact of anxiety by carefully adjusting the focus of objectives from a long-range, clouded view of goals, to a more close-up focus on short-term, clearly defined objectives. Attaining these specific objectives can be successfully achieved through interviews, group discussions, and questionnaires that accurately identify learner expectations. |
Conclusion This discussion has pinpointed five prevailing myths that must be dispelled if educators are to effectively meet the growing challenge of adult learners’ demands. Once these myths have been dispelled, learning environments can be created that maximize learning opportunities and outcomes for the increasingly larger numbers of adults enrolling in post-secondary institutions. Moreover, the facts presented to dispel these myths provide an avenue to compensate for the void in adult-focused motivation theory. These solutions consists of designing learning strategies based on the lifetime experiences of adult learners. Accordingly, such strategies can be effective if they are taken from theoretically sound psychological frameworks that have been properly interpreted by teachers. It is only this approach that can effect the positive learning outcomes among the growing adult-student population now and into the 21st century. To continue to delay preparing post secondary instructors to accept this challenge and meet the needs and interests of adult learners is not an option. The waiting game for an adult-focused motivation theory must be ended. The ball is now in the teachers’ court and they must take this ball and run with it! |
References Adult Task Force. (1991). Similarities and differences in the adult
learner: Issues and implications. Dayton, OH: Sinclair Community College. |