Administrative Leadership for Workforce Education:What Research Says' |
Curtis R. Finch |
Overview Leadership has been and continues to be a most elusive concept. Over the years, its nature and characteristics have often been argued. As Yukl (1994, p. 3-5) noted in his comprehensive book about leadership in organizations, controversies about leadership have existed for some time. Included among the different issues related to this area are: whether leadership should be viewed as a property of a certain individual or a property of a social system, whether a difference exists between leadership and management, and to what extent attempts at influencing others should be included in leadership. Questions have also been raised about whether leadership can really be taught and, if so, how it should be taught and applied in real world settings. Regarding the conceptualization of leadership, Yukl indicated “a general theory of leadership that explains all aspects of the process adequately has not yet to be developed” (p. 19). He has, however, presented an integrated conceptual framework that displays likely relationships among many types of variables that have been included in prior leadership research. Yukl’s comments that additional research is needed in the general field of leadership have an interesting parallel in the area of educational administration. Beginning in the mid-1970s, discrepancies were noted between how educational administrators were expected to perform on the job and the ways in which they were prepared for this role (Murphy & Hallinger, 1987). Eventually these discrepancies led educators to the conclusion that major reform was needed in educational administration. Educators thus began focusing on what administrators needed and how they could be better prepared to function as administrative leaders. During the past 15 years, preparation of educational administrators has evolved from a rather disjointed set of graduate course offerings to a broad array of innovative preparation models, programs, and related leadership development approaches and resources. Several examples of ways administrators may be better prepared for their jobs as leaders include the professional association, state, laboratory, university development models described by Murphy and Hallinger (1987); an internship program guide for preparing educational leaders prepared by Milstein, Bobroff, and Restine (1991), and educational leadership case studies for reflective practice developed by Asbaugh and Kasten (1995). These are merely a few of the hundreds of items that may be used to assist persons in becoming administrative leaders. Unfortunately, much of the progress that has been made in general educational administrator/leader preparation does not connect directly with the needs of prospective and practicing vocational education administrators. Differences in contexts, responsibilities, and needs serve to distinguish in many ways between what is expected of general educational administrators and vocational education administrators (Finch & McGough, 1991). Thus, in response to the need for conceptions of leadership that extend beyond business, industry, and general education and into vocational education, the National Center for Research in Vocational Education (NCRVE), University of California, Berkeley, began in 1988 to conduct a wide range of leadership activities. This programmatic effort extended for about 10 years and primarily involved Center staff at the University of Minnesota and Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) sites in a number of studies and development work. The activities that were conducted may be organized into five distinct but interrelated areas: (1) leadership concepts, (2) leadership characteristics, (3) leadership assessment, (4) leadership development resources and services, and (5) learning to lead through on-the-job experiences. In this article, many of the research and development activities completed in these areas by NCRVE researchers have been summarized and synthesized. Also included are several implications for practice. |
Leadership Concepts In terms of vocational education administration, the dynamic nature of leadership roles and functions has not been very clear. As Moss and Liang (1990) indicated, “it seems fair to say that, as yet, there is no consensus in the field on a specific definition of leadership, and explanatory model of leadership behavior, or the most useful means of measuring leadership effectiveness” (p. 1). In response to this concern, researchers at the NCRVE University of Minnesota site prepared both a definition and an explanatory model to serve as a framework for future discussion and research (Moss & Johansen, 1991; Moss & Liang, 1990). Their work was based on an examination of thousands of leadership-related studies and publications produced over the past 40 years. Although space limitations do not permit detailed discussion of the definition and model, a brief description of each is offered. Leadership may be thought of as both a process and property. It is “the process of perceiving when change is needed and influencing the group by noncoercive means as persuasion and example in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement” (Moss & Liang, 1990, p. 6). The property of leadership is “ascribed to an individual by members of group when they perceive the individual to possess certain qualities or characteristics” (Moss & Liang, 1990, p. 6). Thus, when viewed as a property, leadership is in the eye of the beholder and only persons who are so perceived are leaders. The leadership model serves to enhance and clarify the leadership definition by depicting relationships between the leader’s and the group’s behaviors. It is noted in the model that “leaders’ specific behaviors are determined by their attributes—the characteristics, knowledge, and skills—interacting with their perception of group attributes (including culture), the particular tasks at hand, and the general context” (Moss & Liang, 1990, p. 9). Since it was presumed that certain attributes will increase the likelihood that desirable leadership behaviors will occur in a variety of situations, a literature-based list of 35 leader attributes was prepared to accompany the model. |
Leader Characteristics Several studies were conducted to verify the conceptual model of leadership and accompanying attributes. In order to test the leadership conceptualization’s utility, a study was conducted (Moss & Liang, 1990) that focused on two questions: (1) What is the relationship between leader attributes posited in the conceptualization and the leadership effectiveness of vocational administrators? and (2) What is the factor structure of leader attributes among vocational education administrators? The study population consisted of all full-time faculty employed in Minnesota’s thirty-four postsecondary technical colleges. A sample of fifteen teachers was drawn randomly from each technical college, with proportional representation for males and females. The research instrument used was a Leadership Attributes Questionnaire (LAQ), especially designed for the study. Instructors in the sample were directed by the LAQ to think about the one vocational administrator who they knew best—vocational director, assistant director, or adult evening director and to rate that person on each of thirty-five leader attributes and on each of four criterion measures of leadership effectiveness, using a five-point itemized scale. The four criterion measures of leadership effectiveness in the LAQ were the same as the four broad tasks of a leader: (1) inspire a shared vision, (2) foster collaboration and ownership and recognize individual and team contributions, (3) exercise power effectively and enable others to act, and (4) act on the environment to set the right context for the organization. Results revealed that all thirty-five (subsequently expanded to 37) of the attributes were strongly related to perceived leadership effectiveness, and that the following six attributes were particularly useful in predicting perceived effectiveness: (1) motivating others; (2) team building; (3) adaptable, open, flexible; (4) gathering and managing information; (5) willing to accept responsibility; and (6) insightful. Leader attributes could be clustered into the three main groups of social skills and characteristics, personal characteristics, and management skills. Further, there was some evidence that these main groups could be subdivided into the following factors: (1) organizational, (2) cognitive, (3) visionary, (4) action-oriented, (5) energetic, (6) ethical, (7) interpersonal, and (8) intellectual. In a qualitative study conducted by Finch, Gregson, and Faulkner (1991a), the extent to which leader attributes could be identified within vocational education institution and group contexts was explored. Essentially, the researchers sought to determine what leadership attributes (as demonstrated by behaviors) were reflective of successful vocational administrators in their work roles. In doing so, consideration was given to the contexts within which these behaviors were demonstrated and the groups and individuals (followers and others) who interacted with these administrators. A sample of seven states which had well-developed systems of secondary and/or postsecondary vocational education was selected. Through the use of semistructured interviews, state administrative officers and their staff members responsible for vocational education were asked to nominate administrators in their states who were most successful as leaders in vocational education. Nominated administrators (n = 39) were interviewed to confirm views expressed by state-level personnel and to obtain enriched descriptions of their roles. Instructors (n = 78) who worked with these administrators were interviewed to obtain subordinates’ perspectives on administrative leadership. The interview process was patterned after the Behavioral Event Interview, which is based on John Flanagan’s Critical Incident Technique (Finch, Gregson, & Faulkner, 1991b). Behavioral event write-ups prepared from interview transcripts were examined using procedures designed for analysis of text-based qualitative data. The analysis was used to identify patterns and themes that were imbedded in the data. It was found that leadership behaviors identified through the interviews comprised a significant part of the successful administrator’s role in the vocational education enterprise. The behaviors identified lent support to the validity of the conceptual structure for leadership and the list of leader attributes conceptualized in the Moss and Liang (1990) study. Of the attributes examined during the Finch, Gregson, & Faulkner (1991a) field study, communication appeared to be a most likely candidate for further examination. Behaviors related to this attribute occurred in 62% of the events and an initial analysis had revealed that successful administrators’ communication skills extended well beyond what was minimally required. This was confirmed via statements made by instructors as well as administrators. It was also noted that, in a number of cases, communication behaviors overlapped with other leadership behaviors. These factors led to an in-depth study of communication’s role in administrative leadership (Finch, Gregson, & Faulkner, 1992). One hundred sixty-eight events that included communication were examined using a communication coding scheme. Information was drawn primarily from behavior event write-ups; however, transcripts of conversations with administrators and instructors were examined as necessary when clarification was needed. From the analysis, several patterns and themes related to communication emerged. First, successful administrators did not always rely on a single form of communication. Often, several forms of communication were skillfully woven together to accomplish important administrative objectives. Second, the administrators demonstrated listening skills. Third, communication was used in a wide range of contexts such as small and large group meetings, proposal preparation, development plans, and one-on-one sessions. Finally, successful administrators integrated communication with a wide variety of leadership attributes. Communication skills supported and enhanced administrator involvement in such areas as decision-making; tact, sensitivity, respect; information gathering; and group process and team building. A study was also conducted to determine the kinds of criteria vocational instructors actually use when they judge the leadership effectiveness of administrators (Moss, Finch, & Johansen, 1991). Based upon a review of the literature and the investigators’ philosophic views, a system for classifying leadership effectiveness was designed. The three major divisions of the classification system are based upon three types of outcomes or consequences: the extent to which the leader’s behavior is perceived to (1) improve the quality of the group process; (2) have had a personal impact upon followers/subordinators; and (3) have helped the organization (school) perform its tasks successfully and attain its goals. Each of the three types of outcomes was divided into categories of criteria, and then samples of specific criteria were created to illustrate each category. Portions of the database accumulated by Finch, Gregson, & Faulkner (1991a) were reanalyzed. One hundred and fifty-four behavioral events in the database describing situations in which instructors felt their vocational administrators had demonstrated particularly effective leadership performance were analyzed to identify the criteria teachers had used (implicitly) in selecting and describing the exemplary leadership behaviors. Results revealed that criteria used most frequently by instructors to identify effective leadership were those which “satisfy the instructors’ job-related needs.” The next four most frequently used categories of criteria were all “group process” outcomes. “Inspire a vision” was the only group process outcome that is apparently not used frequently by instructors. Another study in this series focused on economic development-related programs that had been initiated by postsecondary occupational education administrators and examined the leadership roles these persons played in program establishment. Drawing again from the main study information base, descriptive cases were developed that told how successful administrators used their leadership skills to respond to the need for improved workforce development (Finch & Faulkner, 1990). Cases focused on three areas: productivity training, customized training, and technology transfer. It was noted that administrators utilized a wide range of leadership skills as they initiated economic development-related programs. Areas of expertise that related to the economic development process included vision, insight, planning, and communication. An additional investigation focused on the administrator in a contemporary context and examined this person’s role as a renewal and change agent (Finch, Faulkner, & Gregson, 1992-1993). Two separate concerns served as a starting point for this study. First, when coding 272 behavioral event write-ups as part of the larger study (Finch, Gregson, & Faulkner, 1991), analysis appeared to be neglecting a more holistic notion of leadership. This, coupled with the inability to code appropriate use of leadership styles (one of the originally conceptualized leader attributes), led to exploration of an overarching leadership framework that might encompass entire events in leaders’ professional lives. Thus, relevant events were reexamined to determine the extent to which transformational leadership could be described. Events chosen were those previously classified as of the “implementing self-selected changes and improvements” type. This type was one of 14 types of events discussed by interviewees. Thirty-three events of this type were discussed by postsecondary occupational education administrators and instructors (16 events by administrators and 17 events by instructors). Each event was examined and event sections coded according to five transformational themes (vision, influence orientation, people orientation, values orientation, motivational orientation). Events were also noted that had potential to serve as exemplars of transformational leadership in action. Four events were selected to illustrate transformational leadership in occupational education settings. Their foci included (1) initiating a work ethics program, creating a nursing center, developing an advising program, and implementing a planning and budgeting process. In addition to serving as detailed descriptions of four different leadership situations, the events modeled what transformational leadership should be in a holistic sense. In a more recent article written by Moss and Jensrud (1995), results of several NCRVE studies related to gender, leadership, and vocational education were micro-analyzed and synthesized. Answers were sought to a three part question: To what extent do gender-related differences exist among vocational administrators in terms of (a) the criteria by which their leadership effectiveness is judged, (b) the effectiveness of their leadership performance and the level or their leadership attributes, and (c) the gender biases of the vocational rater-observers who judge them? (p. 7-8) Results of the analyses supported answers to the three questions that were posed. First, both male and female instructors used the same criteria to judge their administrators’ leadership effectiveness. Second, female vocational administrators were considered to be slightly more effective leaders than their male counterparts by both female and male subordinates and/or peers. And third, vocational instructors did not exhibit any gender biases in the ratings of vocational department heads (p. 19). In the studies analyzed, female vocational administrators were seen as more effective leaders than male administrators. However, there was no plausible reason for this difference. Possible explanations for the difference included (1) the socialization process of females that contribute to an empowering, facilitating leadership style and (2) the process by which vocational administrators are selected. |
Assessing Leadership The creation and verification of a leadership model and identification of leader attributes stimulated a need for instruments that would assess vocational education leader attributes and effectiveness. Using research results as a starting point, two leadership assessment instruments were developed. One of these, the Leader Attribute Inventory (LAI), consists of 37 attribute items (expanded to 37 attributes from the original 35) that predispose desirable leadership performance in vocational education. The LAI provides a diagnostic assessment of multiple observers of the 37 attributes. Two forms of the LAI were created: (1) an other-rating form to assess an individual’s perception of the extent to which she or he believes some other individual possesses each of the leader attributes and (2) a self-rating form to assess an individual’s perception of the extent to which she or he currently possesses each of the attributes. Individualized feedback reports can be prepared that combine the self and others data. A second instrument, termed the Leader Effectiveness Index (LEI), was developed to serve as a single measure that reflects the effectiveness with which leaders in vocational education are performing. The LEI consists of six items that reflect important tasks performed by leaders. Preliminary information about LAI and LEI instrument reliability, validity, and utility were described in a report (Moss & Johansen, 1991) and a journal article (Moss, Johansen, & Preskill, 1991). Subsequently, the LAI and LEI were further refined and norms were established based a norm group of 551 secondary and postsecondary vocational administrators and vocational teacher leaders in 12 different states. In addition to the actual instruments, major products of this instrument development effort were manuals describing how the instruments created as well as their validity, reliability, and administration procedures (Moss, Lambrecht, Finch, & Jensrud, 1994a; Moss, Lambrecht, Finch, & Jensrud, 1994b). Two more recent reports (Moss & Jensrud, 1996a; Moss & Jensrud, 1996b) describe specific directions for administering, scoring, and preparing LAI and LEI feedback reports. These reports provide persons who administer the LAI and LEI with detailed procedures needed to give accurate feedback to persons whose leader attributes and effectiveness have been assessed. |
Leadership Development Resources and Services As the identification of leader characteristics was being completed,
work began on both the creation of leadership development resources for
the simulation also appeared to contribute to the cases outselling the
simulation by a 6:1 ratio. Based on an examination of the case study and
simulation dissemination processes, suggestions were made for improvement
of future dissemination strategies and product designs. Perhaps the most extensive effort in the series of NCRVE leadership development activities consisted of preparing a comprehensive leadership program for underrepresented groups in vocational education (Moss, Schwartz, & Jensrud, 1994). The leadership program is designed to provide leadership experiences specifically for women and other underrepresented groups in vocational education, however, it can easily adapted for use with any group of aspiring leaders. The leadership program is very extensive in scope and when fully implemented could take up to nine months to complete. It contains almost 1000 pages of useful leadership knowledge and application. Imbedded in the program are activities that enable the LAI and LEI to help program participants gain an understanding of their personal talents and development needs. The earlier mentioned simulation (Finch, 1992) is included as a capstone activity for the program and provides participants with opportunities to apply in dynamic settings what they have learned about leadership throughout the program. |
Leadership Development Services In an effort to stimulate and facilitate leadership development for vocational education professionals throughout the nation, a project was initiated that focusing on the stimulation, conduct, and evaluation of leadership programs. The first target group for development efforts consisted of graduate students in vocational education, whereas, the second group included already employed professionals in vocational education (Moss, Jensrud, & Johansen, 1992; Moss, Leske, Jensrud, & Berkas, 1994). To aid in reaching graduate students, researchers collaborated with the University Council for Vocational Education (UCVE), an organization that includes among its members numerous comprehensive graduate programs at major research universities. A conference was held to acquaint teacher educators with the leadership conceptualization and resource materials that were available for use in leadership development programs. Then, a Request for Proposals (RFP) was sent to heads of graduate programs in vocational education at approximately 500 universities. Modest support was offered to selected programs to assist in creating or extensively revising leadership development programs for their graduate students in vocational education. Grantees were required to use as instructional objectives one or more of the 37 leader attributes and to cooperate with NCRVE in the evaluation of their programs. Ultimately, seven universities were funded to offer nine leadership development programs (two programs were offered twice). A tenth program, provided by the University of Minnesota, was fully supported by the state. Building on experiences with the first group, a similar set of activities was begun that focused on leadership development for employed professionals in vocational education. This effort resulted in grants to seven universities and state agencies in support of inservice leadership development activities. Evaluation of each program and a meta-analysis of the programs were guided by nine questions. Three questions focused on a description of the program as well as participants and costs. Four questions focused on program outcomes. One question dealt with an examination of relationships between program activities and changes in leader attributes. A final question focused on recommendations for program improvement. Among the results generated by the study, several are summarized to capture the flavor of this major effort. First, self-assessment activities, combined with planning for self-development, were viewed as being very effective by participants. Second, participants reported that observa tions of and interviews with leaders at work were very effective at improving attributes. Third, the more structured the program and the more active the involvement of participants, the more likely it was for attributes to improve. Fourth, readiness to change was prerequisite to attribute improvement. Fifth, for the graduate student programs, there was a significant relationship between length of directly supervised instruction and number of attributes that showed improvement. However, no such relationship was found for the in-service personnel programs. And sixth, no relationship existed between the number of attributes that increased significantly and the cost per student. |
Learning to Lead On-The-Job Yukl (1994) noted that many of the skills learned by corporate managers are based on experience rather than formal education. However, it has only been recently that the specific characteristics and impact of on-the-job experiences have been examined. In the mid-1980’s and early 1990’s, researchers at the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) conducted a series of studies directed toward on-the-job learning. Results of these studies (for example, see Eichinger & Lombardo, 1990; Lombardo & Eichinger, 1989; McCall, Lombardo, & Morrison, 1988) support the notion that persons’ on-the-job experiences in the corporate sector can have positive impact on managers’ leadership development. Unfortunately, little is known about the ways on-the-job experiences contribute to public educators’ leadership capabilities. Thus, a study was initiated that built directly on findings from the corporate world and sought to determine the extent to which on-the-job experiences contribute to vocational education professionals’ leadership development (Lambrecht, Hopkins, Finch, & Moss, 1997). This research was seen as a next logical step in NCRVE’s long-term research since it both complemented and supplemented leadership development provided in formal education programs. From among the 220 chief vocational administrators who participated in the norming process for the LAI and LEI, the 78 with the highest scores on the LEI were asked to participate in the study. Sixty-nine of the 78 vocational education administrator-leaders from 12 states participated in the telephone interview process. The Behavioral Event Interview technique was used because of its ability to focus on meaningful dynamic behaviors demonstrated by leaders. Five types of experiences were identified as being most helpful to vocational education administrators in their development as leaders: new positions that offer new and/or increased responsibilities; special start-up work assignments; handling personnel problems like conflicts and firings; being mentored, counseled, supported; and working with a supervisor. The following experiences were seen by interviewees to provide a wide range of opportunities for leadership development: the chance to learn new ideas, practices, insights; the opportunity to apply and practice skills and knowledge; encouragement and confidence building; and exposure to positive role models. Leadership qualities developed by on-the-job opportunities included communication skills; administrative/management knowledge and skills; team building skills; sensitivity, respect; confidence, self-acceptance; a broader perspective about the organization; appropriate use of leadership styles; and unspecified interpersonal skills. Additional results supported the value of on-the-job experiences in developing leadership capabilities and described experiences that were seen by interviewees as being more valuable to women and men. |
Implications for Practice What implications can be drawn for ten years of programmatic research and development focusing on administrative leadership? A detailed set of recommendations could extend well beyond the length of an entire article. Thus, only selected implications have been provided. Concepts and Characteristics The conceptualized leadership model and attributes have been shown to
comprise a meaningful framework for leadership research, development,
and program development. Validity of both is supported by research results.
In three studies, a strong relationship was noted between each of the
37 attributes and the leadership performance of vocational administrators.
In another study, it was confirmed that vocational instructors actually
use the criteria included in the conceptualization for assessing leadership
performance. Additional studies support (1) the value that communication
can add administrative leadership, (2) the positive contributions that
leadership can make to economic development, (3) the benefits that may
be gained by using transformational leadership, and (4) that female vocational
administrators are judged to be more effective than their male counterparts.
These findings contribute directly to the knowledge base for vocational
education leadership. However, equally important is the impact this knowledge
can have on the creation and operation of more meaningful leadership preparation
and development programs. Development of the LAI and LEI make it possible for vocational education professionals to assess their leader attributes at a specific point in time and to assess changes in their leader attributes over time. Self-assessment is a useful starting point for developing as a leader. By completing the LAI, a person can identify which attributes need to be improved and which appear to be satisfactory. Then, scores on the LAI may used to create an individualized leadership development plan. Through the use of LAI rating-by-observer forms, LAI scores can aid in identifying how subordinates or peers view a person’s leadership. Comparing self scores with an average of others’ scores may point to differences in perception. Comparing scores with persons comprising the LAI norm group enables the individual to determine what his or her standing is in relation to that group. Knowledge of one’s place in the norm group can provide motivation for improving performance and/or satisfaction with current performance. Scores on the LEI can, likewise, be used for professional development purposes. However, when both LEI and LAI scores are available, the individual can more easily identify which specific attributes should be improved in order to be more effective as a leader. Resources and Services The case studies, simulation, and leadership development program that have been prepared offer a wealth of content and strategies that can be used in a variety of leadership education settings. Whereas the case studies may be easily integrated into existing leadership and administration courses and workshops, the simulation requires a longer time period for its use. This is a logistical shortcoming, but the inconvenience is more than offset by what simulation participants learn as they assume the roles of administrators and operate a technical college. The comprehensive leadership program for underrepresented groups in vocational education may be adopted or adapted to meet most leadership development needs. It should be on the bookshelves everyone who designs and conducts leadership development programs for aspiring and practicing vocational education administrators.
The fact that exemplary vocational administrators can learn to lead via on-the-job experiences should come as no surprise. However, with an good understanding of what on-the-job experiences are most helpful and which leadership qualities can be developed on-the-job, persons who prepare leaders are in a much better position to select experiences that are most beneficial for groups and individuals. In the past, on-the-job experiences have been largely ignored as opportunities for leadership development. With information now available about the potential on-the-job experiences have to improve leadership qualities, it is anticipated that both aspiring and practicing vocational administrators will be provided with on-the-job experiences that build on their more formal leadership education in new and more powerful ways. |
References Ashbaugh, C. R., & Kasten, K. L. (1995). Educational leadership:
Case studies for reflective practice. White Plains, NY: Longman. |
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1 Much of the research and development discussed in this article was conducted by the National Center for Research in Vocational Education pursuant to a grant from the Office of Vocational and Adult Education, U.S. Department of Education. However, the views and opinions expressed are my own and do not necessarily represent official U.S. Department of Education policy or position. Curtis R. Finch is a Professor of Vocational and Technical Education at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. He is also the Site Director of the National Center for Research in Vocational Education. |