School-to-Work Curricula in the Middle Schools: Design, Benefits, and Concerns

Curtis R. Finch
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Marianne Mooney
TransCen, Inc.

1. Why have STW curricula been implemented including conceptual, organizational, and operational reasons?
2. What are the foci of the curricula and how were they determined?
3. What benefits do the curricula provide to students?
4. What issues and concerns are associated with implementing STW curricula at the middle school level?

Framework

Since the middle school concept was first introduced by William M. Alexander in 1963, educators have been searching for ways to embrace it. Middle school theory surmises that early adolescents’ academic, social, and emotional needs are better served by an educational experience not found in the elementary or high school environments. Some middle-level schools have been restructured and transformed to provide the appropriate learning environment that assists young adolescents to meet their potential, and provide a meaningful place for young people in an adult culture. Steps for accomplishing this change have been outlined in Turning Points: Preparing American Youth for the 21st Century by the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1989), and have been widely disseminated as a national “blueprint” for reform and restructuring efforts. These steps include the following:

• Create small communities for personalized learning (small schools or small programs within larger schools).
• Create successful experiences for all students by eliminating tracking and promoting cooperative learning.
• Give teachers and administrators decision-making power concerning curriculum and instruction.
• Employ teachers who like, respect, and appreciate adolescents.
• Employ teachers who are experts in teaching young adolescents.
• Improve academic performance through fostering health and fitness of young adolescents.
• Encourage family involvement in the education process.
• Connect middle schools with their communities (p. 9).

The authors of Turning Points noted that middle schoolers need to become “socially competent individuals” who are able to cope successfully with everyday life. They need to believe that they have promising futures and the competence to take advantage of societal opportunities when they arise.

Unfortunately, many middle schoolers “lose ground” academically during this period. Theory suggests the declining academic achievement that commonly plagues adolescents may be directly related to “the mismatch between the developmental needs of the students and the educational environment” (Mac Iver, 1989). In turn, providing young adolescents with a combination of both challenging and nurturing experiences in appropriate settings can strengthen the possibility of them becoming more effective academic and social participants. Substantial evidence can be found of a relationship between young adolescents’ perceptions of the classroom environment and their achievement and attitudes (Dougherty, 1997).

It was emphasized in Turning Points (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989) that a tremendous discrepancy existed between middle grade curriculum and the needs of young adolescents. As Felner, Kasak, Mulhall, & Flowers (1997a, p. 521-522) stated, Turning Points has provided educators with “comprehensive and researchable constructs and exemplars of those constructs to undergird their reform efforts.” In fact, the eight major recommendations for reform provided in Turning Points (cited earlier) served as a framework for the long-term evaluation of a model for high performing learning communities (Felner, Jackson, Kasak, Mulhall, Brand & Flowers, 1997b). The Turning Points framework, likewise, guided this research; particularly regarding ways middle schools utilize school-to-work/careers curricula to reduce the incongruence between the middle school curriculum and students’ needs.

Method

The research method was qualitative, with in-depth telephone interviews serving as the information gathering process. The qualitative inquiry focused on understanding the perceptions, experiences, and needs of middle school educators using primarily an open-ended and exploratory approach. Interview protocols were designed to gather rich descriptions and details about STW opportunities from the interviewees. Concurrently, state STW coordinators, selected association representatives, and VocNet listserve subscribers were asked to nominate middle schools where they perceived comprehensive, long-term STW curricula had been established. Nominators were asked to identify “successful” programs within the limited parameters outlined by the researchers. Nomination criteria defined middle schools that (a) had a fully operational, successful school-to-work/careers program, (b) were graduating students from the program, (c) had effective linkages with high school school-to-work/careers efforts as well as the workplace and the community, and (d) had a long-term commitment to STW transition at the school-district level.
Vocational education professionals and practitioners across the nation continually ask for descriptive information on promising practices, particularly techniques and program models for implementation, that may be emulated (with adaptation) in their schools and facilitate positive program outcomes (Matias, Maddy-Bernstein, & Harkin, 1999). Therefore, our goal was to provide an organized, detailed scan of the middle school STW programs now in place. Purposeful sampling was employed to ensure the selection of schools that were “information rich,” and exemplified the characteristics of interest. By focusing only on what are perceived as successful STW curricular implementations, we sought to identify the common characteristics and components of promising approaches, some of the questions and challenges that are raised by these practices, and examine the effectiveness of the specific strategies used.
Thirty-six middle schools representing 16 different states were nominated. Contact persons available at 28 of the 36 middle schools were interviewed to gather detailed information about their curricula. The remaining eight schools either did not meet selection criteria or their representatives were unavailable to complete the interview within the time constraints of the study. At six of the 28 middle schools, interviews were also conducted with three to five additional persons including at least one principal, one counselor, and one teacher.
Full verbatim transcriptions were made of each interview along with personal notes which were compiled for review. The Ethnograph (Qualis Research Associates, 1990) software provided the researchers with the capacity of coding, grouping, and regrouping information according to predominant and underlying themes. A cross-interview method, grouping the answers from different interviewees on the same questions, was used to organize the content analysis of the data (Patton, 1990). Themes that emerged across questions for each interview were also categorized and analyzed. Material within the categories was examined to identify variations and nuances in meaning, while across-category comparisons were used to discover connections between the themes. An understanding of the context under study was gained through the analysis of unique characteristics, ideas, concepts, and patterns that emerged from the interview text and addressed the research concerns (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; Rubin & Rubin, 1995). These themes and theoretical explanations were derived from the context and should be considered context-specific and provisional. Each theme was clearly illustrated with quotes.
The “credibility” of findings, how well the findings of the study fit the reality of the phenomenon being studied (Guba, 1978), was enhanced by using a variety of sources and data collection techniques. Increased confidence in credibility was obtained through the use of literature searches, document analysis (permanent school products), and formal telephone interviews with several educators from each site. Data were cross-checked to determine the extent of agreement (convergence) among the information sources. The greater the convergence among data, the greater the credibility attributed to them. The primary strategy used in this study to ensure credibility was the provision of rich, thick, detailed descriptions that provided a solid framework for comparison and transferability (Merriam, 1988).
The “reliability” of the qualitative study was defined in terms of the consistency with which the methodology used to obtain the data corresponded to the “canons of good research” (Lincoln, 1981, p. 6). Careful documentation of the procedural and conceptual development of the study was maintained to provide evidence of acceptable research practice, and to allow for reconstruction of the process by interested parties. Records maintained by the researchers included the raw data (interview recordings and transcripts, personal notes on protocol forms, permanent school products), data reduction and analysis products, activity and decision-making logs, and instrument development information. While the uniqueness of the study mitigates against replicating it exactly in another context, an examination of the existence of common patterns, events, or thematic constructs in other school-to-work settings is possible.

Findings

Middle school personnel responded to questions concerning four areas: (a) reasons for the implementation of a middle school STW curriculum; (b) curriculum focus; (c) ways the middle school STW curriculum contributed to student success; and (d) issues and concerns that have been voiced about implementing a STW curriculum at this level. Examination of interviewee responses resulted in the identification of themes underlying interviewee responses for each question. Descriptions of these themes are presented. Selected responses made by principals, academic and vocational teachers, STW coordinators, guidance counselors, school administrators, and others are included to assist in describing the nature of each theme.

Why Implement School-to-Work Curriculum?

Reasons given for implementing a middle school STW curriculum were organized into seven themes including: Enhancing Curriculum Relevance, Serving At-Risk Populations More Effectively, Enhancing Student Development, Developing Career Awareness and Career Exposure, Supporting Systemic Change and School Reform, Building Community Linkages, and Improving the Transition to High School and Beyond.

Enhancing Curriculum Relevance The most frequently cited reason for implementing a middle school STW curriculum was to help students make a connection between school learning, the workplace, and future living. Several interviewees indicated that middle school students generally do not connect the classroom and the “real world”, and that middle level educators needed to find more creative and innovative ways to answer the question, “Why do I need to learn this stuff?” Interviewees indicated that in order to bridge the gap between schooling and the workplace, instruction and classroom activities must link career experiences and academics in relevant ways. Curriculum content must be viewed by students as having a meaningful and lasting connection to their lives. Interviewee responses also revealed that for curriculum to be relevant, it must be realistic. The STW approach was viewed as a way to “give the content a context” that “gives validity to what we do as educators.” One technology director stated: “Giving kids the opportunity to get into the workforce and see how various language arts skills and mathematics skills and science skills are being applied, really seemed to make sense. We felt that it would really give them a good understanding as to what education was all about.”

Since the STW curriculum was viewed as being relevant, realistic and meaningful, many interviewees concluded that this approach would be motivating to the students. Motivation, or perhaps, lack of motivation, was frequently mentioned as a reason for implementing a School-to-Work curriculum. This curriculum approach was considered motivating because it was “hands-on”, innovative, active, interactive, and allowed students to visualize the end results.

Serving At-Risk Populations More Effectively In many cases, the impetus for the school-to-work curricula adoption was derived from increasing concerns about “at-risk” students. Many interviewees stated that their STW middle school programs were implemented, at least in part, as an alternative education program or a dropout prevention strategy for at-risk students. The STW program was also viewed as a way to individually address learning styles and interests, ability levels, self-esteem issues, motivation issues, and remediation needs. It should be noted that several sites considered “at risk” to include not only the traditionally defined special population students, but also gifted and talented and nontraditional students. The STW curriculum was viewed at several sites as a way to address gender equity issues and eliminate tracking in certain career paths. According to one guidance counselor:

This emphasis on “special populations” as the target of much of the STW effort at the middle school may reflect the congressional intent to “help all students to attain high academic and occupational standards, to motivate all youths, including low-achieving youths, school dropouts, and youths with disabilities, to stay in or return to school or a classroom setting and strive to succeed, by providing enriched learning experiences and assistance in obtaining good jobs and continuing their education…” (School-to-Work Opportunities Act, 1994, Section 3).

Enhancing Student Development. Two concerns were identified within this theme: developing personal awareness and developing work-related skills. Personal awareness development was commonly cited as a reason for implementing a middle school STW curriculum. Interviewees referred to planning a purposeful and developmental STW program that addressed the areas of personal responsibility and dignity, self expression, self-knowledge, and self-discipline. One junior high school principal felt STW education allowed students to determine “where they see themselves in relation to others and as an individual.”

A majority of respondents indicated their STW programming was an effective alternative to traditional tracking because it increased the students’ achievement and exerted a more positive impact on the personal development of students with learning difficulties or delays. The STW curriculum was seen as more readily adaptable to the pace and level of instruction needed for certain individuals. A STW coordinator commented on the ability of this curriculum to “target the actual needs of students and therefore, motivate them more effectively.” Others focused on using STW education to enhance work-related skills such as, future goal clarification, informed decision-making, team building and problem-solving, collaboration, critical thinking, and leadership. One junior/ senior high school principal believed STW education “allows kids to explore as many options as possible and helps them in making well-based decisions about what they want to be when they grow up.”

Developing Career Awareness and Career Exposure Both career awareness and career exposure were frequently cited as key reasons for implementing a STW curriculum. Interviewees felt it was important for middle school students to “see what’s out there beyond the school walls.” Several interviewees commented on the need to expose students to a variety of occupations, not just the more common ones. In addition, interviewees were concerned that schools were not able to keep up with changes in the business world and that work-based opportunities could help by exposing students to “real world applications and experiences.” Interviewees at several sites also addressed developing the teacher’s career awareness as part of their STW agenda. Teachers were exposed to a variety of occupations and career curriculum options through summer externships, worksite visits, on-the-job experiences, shadowing activities, conferences, resource library materials, weekly meetings, and specific training sessions. These experiences were expected to impact the teacher’s instruction, curriculum implementation, and assessment practices. Out-of-school opportunities were intended to “train teachers how to weave School-to-Work ideas into their daily curriculum” and “change the teacher’s way of thinking about relating instruction to the workplace.”

Supporting Systemic Change and School Reform. In addition to enhancing career awareness, interviewees saw the STW program as a vehicle to long-lasting and systemic change, a way to build a foundation for establishing a seamless, streamlined, comprehensive system. Increasingly, educators and educational reformers look to school-to-work approaches not only as a curricular adoption, but as a “lever for change across the school…” (Steinberg, Cushman, & Riordan, 1999, p. 45). Some sites described their schools as “in crisis” and were using the STW approach as one of many approaches to initiating and sustaining school reform. Several respondents also discussed the need for a comprehensive, developmental guidance delivery system that included both career guidance and work-based learning activities for all students. Interviewees at several sites commented on attempts to revise, renovate, and refocus their career exploration programs to emphasize School-to-Work issues. The intention of this emphasis was on linking career experiences with both guidance and academics.

Building Community Linkages The concept of community emerged as a dominant theme related to implementing middle school STW curricula. In fact, several sub-themes identified in this theme included (a) building community/business linkages, (b) addressing business/ industry/community concerns, (c) supporting local economic development, and (d) encouraging student participation in the community. Strong business and industry linkages were viewed as a vital part of the STW curriculum since worksite experiences and workplace understanding are essential ingredients for future success. Interviewee responses suggested that linking with the community was a two-way process. Schools attempted to address community, business, and parent concerns by surveying and assessing their needs and forming task force committees and partnerships to help determine avenues to successful improvement. Some schools tried to “align curriculum based on research from employers.” However, in return, schools expected the community and business members to become actively involved in the education of their young people. The business community needed to “help prepare students for the workplace, address the skills not being addressed in school, and make educators aware of workplace needs.” Many interviewees viewed the business community as willing, but apprehensive, participants in this process.

Linkages were developed primarily in response to concerns voiced by employers and community members in neighboring areas. A STW curriculum was seen as addressing the needs of very economically depressed areas, often preparing students for more skilled jobs since the local area had lost its unskilled employment base. In other instances, entrepreneurship was encouraged as one way to provide local work experiences for the students, bring new businesses into the community, and encourage graduates to stay in the area or return to the area to live. Entrepreneurship was also seen as a viable way to encourage students to expand their career options and aspirations, or as one STW program coordinator stated, “to think beyond I want to be a farmer.”

Community involvement and service were frequently cited as reasons for implementing a STW curriculum at the middle school level. School personnel at several sites felt it was important to “help kids to understand who they are in a community and to develop a sense of place in that environment.” Interviewees commented that middle school students often feel people don’t care about them and that they needed to consistently see that those in the community cared about their futures. The STW curriculum was viewed by one rural site community education director as “an opportunity to learn IN the community and contribute TO the community through community development projects.” In addition, STW can “give the community a more real perception of what goes on in schools.”

Improving the Transition to High School and Beyond Several interviewees indicated that middle level educators must help to ease the transition into high school by providing a “continuum of services that link and build on previous experiences” and assisting students in “speaking the language of the high school.” Middle school personnel discussed becoming partners with the high schools in a long-term process, indicating a need to examine how middle school activities and learning can influence high school decisions. A guidance counselor commented:

Although middle level educators interviewed saw the importance of preparing students for high school, most indicated a wider reaching influence. Interviewees indicated that STW programs at the middle school level would develop students who were better prepared for post-high school education and careers in the future. An executive director of professional technical education stated that his district focused on providing a “smooth transition for students from school to school, school to post secondary opportunities, and school to work”, and that they intended to assure their students “learn more about the requirements, skills and benefits of a full range of career options and opportunities to help prepare them for the future.”

Preparation for future work was frequently cited as a reason for implementing the STW curriculum. For example, one rural school principal insisted, “We have been too academically inclined. We must look at each student as a future worker.” Some respondents specifically addressed the need to prepare students to live in a technical world and to “provide training for the high tech workplace.” A STW education was seen as an avenue to expose students to a wide range of technological careers and encourage interest in technology opportunities.

Conceptual Reasons for Implementing the Curriculum

Over half of the interviewees could not offer conceptual reasons for implementing the STW curriculum. However, several respondents referred to the middle school philosophy and the Carnegie Turning Points as their conceptual basis for adopting a middle school STW curriculum. Some interviewees indicated that STW educational reform would advance the middle school agenda by “embedding basic skills into a thought-provoking curriculum” and “providing a holistic approach to the child.” At some schools, interviewees saw the STW initiative and the middle school philosophy as “a total fit” for this age group since their real task was to help the student transition from a child to a young adult. A science and technology magnet school principal explained the alignment between the two.

Some questioned the compatibility of the two concepts. One rural site principal commented, “The liability of the middle school philosophy is you become more elementary in nature. The needs of adolescents are just human needs. It’s never too early to address future needs.” Another rural school principal stated, “School-to-Work and Turning Points are not congruent. Turning Points philosophy de-emphasizes academics and works on affective behaviors. We don’t buy into this.”

In addition to Carnegie’s Turning Points, several interviewees cited specific sources as conceptual reasons for implementing the School-to-Work curriculum. These included the SCANS competencies, National Career Development Guidelines, local and statewide learning standards for excellence, Equity Outcome Guidelines, Microsociety concepts, and state educational reform acts.

Organizational/Operational Reasons for Implementation

One third of the interviewees noted organizational or operational reasons for implementing a STW curriculum at their schools. Interdisciplinary teaming was most often cited as the organizational reason for implementing the STW curriculum at the middle school level. The teaming concept allowed for greater infusion of career materials and information across the different teaching areas. A suburban school principal saw teaming as a way to “encourage career infusion and integration by teachers.” Some schools referred to the career cluster organizations and block scheduling at area high schools as reasons for organizing their curriculum in a similar or complementary fashion. Others felt the STW curriculum supported the nature of a small school or school-within-a-school (academy) structure.

The Curriculum Focus

An examination of interviewee responses concerning the curriculum focus revealed four themes. They included Career Exploration and Awareness, Contextual Learning, Community-based and Service Learning, and Integrated Themes.

Career Exploration and Awareness One of the main focuses of the STW curriculum at the middle school level was career exploration and awareness. Curriculum activities and experiences were designed to “catch the interest of the students” and “expand their horizons.” Students were encouraged to evaluate their individual interests and abilities and build goal setting and decision-making skills through career exploration participation. Interviewees indicated that students were carefully guided through these developmentally appropriate experiences that focused on “exploring the world of work.”

Contextual Learning Some interviewees felt strongly that the focus of the STW should be on real life community and workplace experiences rather than simply exploration. They indicated that information and workplace skills learned in the classroom needed to be applied in actual workplace settings, in other words, to “connect basic learning with practical application.” A district administrator stated, “the School-to-Work implementation focus is the actual fusion of related skills into the curriculum and the actual practicing of those skills in career experience opportunities.”

Community-based and Service Learning Educators at several schools indicated that community-based learning and/or “service learning” was an integral part of their STW curriculum focus. Most interviewees viewed community-based learning as a way for students to build respect for themselves and acquire a stake in their community. Clean-up projects and community safety campaigns were graphic examples of these community-based activities. Interviewees indicated service learning activities helped to “develop a sense of civic responsibility” and “channeled energy into helping solve local problems.” Service learning activities were integrated into the academic curriculum and enhanced what was taught in school by extending student learning beyond the classroom. A district executive indicated that her school focused on service learning because it “encouraged volunteerism as a way to explore the reality of jobs.”

Integrated Themes Many of the respondents indicated that STW education itself provided the focus for their academic curriculum. STW was not viewed as a separate curriculum, but carefully embedded within their daily routines. STW education was seen as a way to “reinforce the classroom curriculum” and “focus on continuous progress.” One principal, referred to his school’s curriculum as having a “school-to-life focus with a very integrated scope and sequence.” Some schools developed specific curriculum themes that heavily focused on STW content. For example, technology, medical careers, legal careers, economics, manufacturing, and entrepreneurship.

Determining the Curriculum Focus

Interviewees discussed several ways in which the STW curriculum focus was initially determined in their locality. These processes included faculty brainstorming, student input and selection, area needs assessments, community “conversations”, trial and error, individual teacher initiatives, and soliciting advice from those localities with past experience. These selection processes ranged from simple, unstructured in-house discussions to highly structured community-wide efforts. A rural site administrator discussed how themes emerged from a number of activities designed to discover a community’s concerns and priorities.

Many of the site respondents indicated that the curriculum focus was constantly “under construction” and “always evolving.” Efforts were being made to keep up-to-date and anticipate possible roadblocks and new avenues of interest.

Benefits the Curriculum Provided to Students

An examination of interviewee responses concerning the benefits their middle school STW curricula provided to their students revealed seven themes. These included Connected Classwork and the Real World, Enhanced Student Personal Development, Improved Student Behaviors and Attitudes, Strengthened Business and Community Linkages, Strengthened Existing Academic Curriculum, Served Special Populations Needs, and Prepared Students for the Future. Many of the benefits related directly to reasons previously mentioned for having implemented the STW curriculum. In other words, students appeared to have benefited in ways that educators had hoped they would. However, some of the other benefits mentioned such as, “improved student behaviors and attitudes” and “strengthened academic curriculum,” were not specifically mentioned as reasons for having implemented the curriculum. The seven themes are not mutually exclusive and thus may have some overlapping characteristics.

Connected Classwork and the Real World A majority of respondents indicated that the number one benefit derived from the STW curriculum consisted of opportunities for students to apply what was learned in the classroom to real life situations, settings, and problems. STW activities and experiences were viewed as beneficial because they were “realistic,” “relevant,” and “meaningful” to students. This connection with reality was seen as not only between the classroom and the workplace, but between the classroom, the community, and students’ future goals. One inner city school principal shared her overall view.

Enhanced Student Personal Development Interviewees revealed that one of the major benefits of implementing a STW curriculum for middle schoolers is that it appealed to the students at their developmental level. This curriculum had more “personal meaning” for the students. One inner city school principal elaborated on this point, “It empowers them, and what we know is that children at this age need to feel that their voices are heard. It also addresses the issues that are germane to a young adolescent.” This opinion was echoed by a rural site administrator. He said:

Several respondents indicated that the STW curriculum helped their students to: (a) build meaningful relationships with adults and peers; (b) improve in their ability to work as members of teams; and (c) grow in self understanding, sophistication, patience, self-esteem and confidence. Students were able to “reflect on and think critically about their experiences” and “recognize the intrinsic value of education and of success and the work ethic.”

Improved Student Behaviors and Attitudes Frequent references were made to the STW curriculum’s direct and positive effect on student behavior. Interviewees had witnessed an increase in active learning behaviors such as, asking questions, participating in discussions, task engagement, and attendance. A few schools specifically stated that they had seen a “steady rise” in standardized test scores for those students involved in the STW curriculum. Improved behavior and attitude adjustment were also evident to educators because of the decrease in truancy, delinquency and discipline referrals, social service interventions, arrests, insolence toward adults, and general “acting out.” Positive behavior and attitude changes were also witnessed by school personnel outside the classroom.

Strengthened Business and Community Linkages Interviewees indicated businesses and industries that had invested time, personnel, and funds in the career component of the STW curriculum were beginning to re-evaluate their initial apprehensions about the program and middle school students. Interviewees also noted that over time businesses, industries, and community agencies offered more extensive and varied first-hand worksite experiences for both the teachers and the students. In addition, businesses provided more reliable and more involved adult worker role models and mentors for the students. Participating businesses were also eager to recruit new businesses into the STW partnership.

The STW curriculum was viewed by many respondents as beneficial because it provided a venue for parents, teachers, and community members to “talk the same vision and goals.” The curriculum was seen as a way to bring the community into the schools and the schools into the community. One rural site administrator extended this idea to include the building of a participatory culture. He stated:

Strengthened Existing Academic Curriculum One of the benefits commonly expressed by interviewees was how the STW curriculum focus had strengthened the academic curriculum currently in place in the schools. The STW focus was said to incorporate traditional educational experiences and values with innovative techniques and methods. One academy principal referred to the curriculum as a superior way of “integrating theory, practice, and hands-on activities.” Interviewees indicated that the STW focus benefited students by “tying our current curriculum to something that’s important to students” and because “it’s a curriculum that makes sense to the kids.” Teachers from several schools commented that students were drawn to this STW curriculum focus because of its “realistic”, “different”, “more involved”, and “experiential” approach to learning. Other interviewees recognized the STW curriculum as having benefited students by providing an increased depth and breadth of information and experience, when compared to the traditional curriculum.

Served Special Populations Needs. Another benefit commonly cited by interviewees was that the STW curriculum assisted educators in providing a more appropriate and comprehensive curriculum for certain special populations, specifically educationally or economically “at-risk” students and minority students. A career counselor discussed several of the benefits “at-risk” students received through participation in a STW middle school curriculum. For example:

Other interviewees commented about the curriculum’s positive effect on minority students in their schools. The STW curriculum was viewed as a way to “pull minority populations together” and to provide minority students with “new ways to view their futures.” One administrator of a school serving predominantly minority students stated, “...the kids learn about each other’s background and how to be sensitive.”

Prepared Students for the Future Interviewees indicated in their responses that middle level students benefited from a STW curriculum because it better prepared them for high school, post-secondary education, the working world, and adult living. Responses indicated that the STW curriculum prepared students for these future settings and situations by “opening their eyes” and “opening their minds” to all the options and occupations available and the “path” commonly taken to achieve certain desired outcomes. The STW curriculum was seen by some interviewees as a workforce preparation program but not in the sense of having middle level students decide on a future career at this young age. Instead, the curriculum was meant to expose students to many different careers and “help and guide them in eventually choosing a career based on their values, personalities, and abilities.”

Several interviewees from larger cities emphasized the need to prepare students at a younger age (middle school level) because eighth graders in their districts were required to select and apply to individual high schools based on their personal career interests and the schools’ career themes. A city district administrator explained how middle school students were benefiting from their career pathway/STW model. He said:

Implementation Issues and Concerns

Issues and concerns related to implementing a STW curriculum at the middle school level that were voiced by those interviewed could be grouped into four themes. They included Participant “Buy-In,” Program Logistics, Resources, and Program Quality and Outcomes.

Participant “Buy-In” Interviewee responses indicated that adults who would potentially be participants in the STW curriculum effort (teachers, parents, guidance counselors, community members, and business representatives) needed to be sold on the idea of STW for middle level students. Students appeared to be the only stakeholder group that did not exhibit initial resistance to and apprehension about the curriculum. Classroom teachers were overwhelmingly the most reluctant curriculum participants. Many classroom teachers originally viewed the STW curriculum as a “fad” or “just one more thing” but in due time came to recognize its value for their students. Those educators “selling” the curriculum needed to show reluctant teachers how it was an on-going, integrated process that would change the way they taught. Teacher concerns lessened as they became more familiar with the integration aspect of the curriculum.

Another issue raised concerning teacher buy-in was the concept that the STW curriculum was intended to be integrated into all subject areas and therefore was meant to be implemented by all teachers, academic and vocational. Traditionally, this career focus was strictly a vocational teacher’s or counselor’s domain and responsibility. Interviewees indicated that academic teachers needed additional convincing that career concepts were applicable and valuable to their class content and goals. While the majority of interviewees indicated that parents of students in the STW curriculum were pleased with its conception and implementation, respondents did acknowledge some minor concerns on the part of individual parents. Some parents were concerned with the number of field trips and time spent outside the school building. Others were concerned about the possibility of the STW/careers programs tracking their children into a particular career path at too early an age. This concern appeared to be more prevalent in schools that did not provide STW opportunities for all students.
Community members voiced some opposition to the teaching and learning methods used in the STW curriculum. Interview responses revealed that a majority of the community members were very supportive of the out-of-school student experiences and ingression into the community and business world. However, other community members were adamant about maintaining the “status quo” and retaining “the way it was.” Interviewees revealed that there had been some “detractors” who felt the STW curriculum was strictly a high school and beyond initiative. These community members believed the time and resources used to put students in the workplace would be better spent when the students were older. Several interviewees commented that they had anticipated a greater outcry against the STW initiative from certain groups of individuals in their community.

Interviewee responses indicated that members of the business community were very supportive of the concept behind STW for the middle level student but very apprehensive about the student’s educational and emotional maturity levels. Most of the business participants had never worked with middle school students and did not know what to reasonably expect. Business members were also very concerned about the worksite safety and liability issues surrounding a program for underage “workers.”

Program Logistics Many of the concerns voiced by curriculum participants centered around the practical day-to-day implementation of the curriculum. Interviewees’ concerns included in this theme could be further organized into four sub-themes: time, scheduling, legalities, and transportation. The majority of interviewees commented on the time-consuming aspect of implementing a comprehensive STW curriculum. It was seen to be time consuming from both the administrative and teacher viewpoint. An inner-city school principal highlighted this concern. “It’s very labor intensive on the part of the adults because you are taking on so many other roles and functions. Teachers who are preparing for their academic arena also have to be preparing for the School-to-Work arena. That’s very intensive.”

Activity and work-experience scheduling was a concern that appeared frequently in the interviews. As one academy principal suggested, “The whole scheduling arm of this, it’s not impossible but it’s certainly an issue that needs one’s attention because if it’s going to be real, then it can’t be Mickey Mouse.” Some interviewees indicated that they were “hamstrung” by their schedules, particularly those working in schools functioning within the traditional eight period school day. Some people at these locations indicated that the schedule limited their options and fostered departmentalism rather than interdisciplinary activities. Although block scheduling was not seen as a reason for establishing a STW program, interviewees claimed block scheduling supported more integrative curricula, flexible programming, in-depth exploration, extensive community and workplace visits, and in-school speakers, films, and workshops.

The legalities of implementing a STW curriculum that included worksite visits or on-the-job training (internships, apprenticeships) were commonly cited as concerns. The legal concerns most frequently mentioned were business and school liability, student safety, and child labor law issues. In addition, transporting students to jobsites, on field trips, and to area high schools in a safe and timely fashion was viewed as a significant curriculum implementation challenge by many of the interviewees.

Resources Financial and human resources were frequently cited by interviewees as the number one issue or concern in implementing a middle school STW curriculum. Interviewees were particularly concerned with two financial situations: maintaining the curriculum “as is” after grant funds dried up, and locating funding for the expansion of a component of the STW curriculum (e.g. internships). Several interviewees commented on trying to maintain and build on a non-mandated program during a time of “reduced school spending” and “district budget cuts.” A school principal in a large city explained how finding additional funding sources was essential to running a successful STW program. She said:

Interviewees noted that personnel needs were an important area of concern. Finding qualified and willing business people to oversee and supervise students on the worksites and act as mentors and role models was reported to be “a challenging aspect of the STW program.” In addition, convincing business partners and community members to continue supplying the local STW program with speakers, mentors, job coaches, etc. was viewed by some interviewees as a possible future concern. One city school principal described the need for business participation in the STW effort at her school as “a constant challenge” and “an on-going focus.” Interviewees at several of the sites were concerned that certain essential in-school personnel positions, such as a STW coordinator position, would be eliminated when grant money disappeared, and that the classroom teachers would be burdened with the responsibilities of that position.

Program Quality and Outcomes Many of the interviewees mentioned concerns about improving the STW classroom instruction and expanding the work-experience opportunities each year. Other interviewees were concerned about the consistency of quality in student work produced in the STW program. The measurement of growth and progress by analyzing changes in individual student test scores is a common practice in many school systems. A few of the interviewees were concerned because the progress students had made in the STW program was not necessarily evident to teachers outside of the STW program or in standardized test scores.

Resolving the Issues and Concerns

Overall, interviewees indicated that their issues and concerns about implementing and maintaining a quality STW curriculum for middle school students were “challenging” but “workable over time.” According to one principal, “There’s always going to be a challenge. There’s always going to be a personality. It’s just like the real world, there’s always going to be something to overcome, but that’s just part of it.” Interviewees also suggested that the “trials and tribulations” they had to work through were typical for any new or innovative program introduced to a school or school system. Some concerns, such as transportation availability, were viewed as “on-going” and “expected”. One community education director explained the process followed to resolve issues and concerns in his school:

• Students can prepare for their futures in addition to satisfying their current needs.
• Teaching and learning can focus on both the educational process and its outcomes.
• Every educator in the school can team with each other, as well as with community and workplace representatives, to provide students with authentic learning experiences.
• The context for teaching is proactive and dynamic rather than reactive and static.
• The curriculum can be developmentally responsive to students and concurrently provide them with a wide range of opportunities such as career exploration and awareness, contextual learning, service learning, and integrated learning themes.

Thus, there appears to be a clear connection between what the middle school literature says middle schools should do and what a number of STW-oriented middle schools are doing. Even though STW opportunities in the middle school may not be a mainstream focus for the majority of middle school professionals, these opportunities have the potential to meet students’ developmental needs in new and exciting ways. It is therefore important to better understand and document exemplary STW opportunities that are occurring in many middle schools across the United States so their successes can be shared with other middle school educators.

It also appears that middle schools where STW opportunities are being provided to students may indeed be exemplars of best practice as envisioned in the middle school literature. Broadly-based teacher teaming, extensive linking with the community, providing students with opportunities for contextual learning, enabling students to explore the real world, and providing students with meaningful developmental experiences are all suggested or implicit in the middle school literature and can all be accomplished within a STW opportunities framework.

Middle level education has been traditionally perceived as primarily a “connection” to high school. However, research shows that the high school years are clearly “too late to begin efforts to help youth develop the skills they will need for stable and better employment in our changing society,” since most people “largely fashion their attitudes about learning, work, and their enduring adult values during early adolescence” (Toepfer, 1997, p. 148). While the documentation is sketchy, it appears that providing school-to-work opportunities at the middle school level has the potential to improve the foundation needed for more effective preparatory experiences and the development of career-related skills at the high school level. The implementation of school-to-work programs at the middle school level may facilitate a conversation among middle- and high school educators that focuses on enabling student learning and developing effective school-to-school partnerships.